Canibais e Reis

Vídeo: Mayte Carranco (Sexy Movimiento Mix). 

Proc Biol Sci. 2004 Jun 22;271(1545):1213-7.

Large breasts and narrow waists indicate high reproductive potential in women. (pdf)

Jasienska G, Ziomkiewicz A, Ellison PT, Lipson SF, Thune I.
Department of Epidemiology and Population Studies, Jagiellonian University, Grzegorzecka 20, 31-531 Kraków, Poland.

Abstract

Physical characteristics, such as breast size and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), function as important features used by human males to assess female attractiveness. Males supposedly pay attention to these features because they serve as cues to fecundity and health. Here, we document that women with higher breast-to-underbreast ratio (large breasts) and women with relatively low WHR (narrow waists) have higher fecundity as assessed by precise measurements of daily levels of 17-beta-oestradiol (E2) and progesterone. Furthermore, women who are characterized by both narrow waists and large breasts have 26% higher mean E2 and 37% higher mean mid-cycle E2 levels than women from three groups with other combinations of body-shape variables, i.e. low WHR with small breasts and high WHR with either large or small breasts. Such gains in hormone levels among the preferred mates may lead to a substantial rise in the probability of conception, thus providing a significant fitness benefit.

 

Arch Sex Behav. 2010 Feb 19. [Epub ahead of print]

Eye Tracking of Men’s Preferences for Female Breast Size and Areola Pigmentation.

Dixson BJ, Grimshaw GM, Linklater WL, Dixson AF.
School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand, .

Abstract

Sexual selection via male mate choice has often been implicated in the evolution of permanently enlarged breasts in women. While questionnaire studies have shown that men find female breasts visually attractive, there is very little information about how they make such visual judgments. In this study, we used eye-tracking technology to test two hypotheses: (1) that larger breasts should receive the greatest number of visual fixations and longest dwell times, as well as being rated as most attractive; (2) that lightly pigmented areolae, indicative of youth and nubility, should receive most visual attention and be rated as most attractive. Results showed that men rated images with medium-sized or large breasts as significantly more attractive than small breasts. Images with dark and medium areolar pigmentation were rated as more attractive than images with light areolae. However, variations in breast size had no significant effect on eye-tracking measures (initial visual fixations, number of fixations, and dwell times). The majority of initial fixations during eye-tracking tests were on the areolae. However, areolar pigmentation did not affect measures of visual attention. While these results demonstrate that cues indicative of female sexual maturity (large breasts and dark areolae) are more attractive to men, patterns of eye movements did not differ based on breast size or areolar pigmentation. We conclude that areolar pigmentation, as well as breast size, plays a significant role in men’s judgments of female attractiveness. However, fine-grained measures of men’s visual attention to these morphological traits do not correlate, in a simplistic way, with their attractiveness judgments.

 

Human Nature, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 263-271.

"The Nubility Hypotheses: The Human Breast as an Honest Signal of Residual Reproductive Value" (pdf)

Marlow F., University of California, Santa Barbara

Abstract

A new hypothesis is proposed to explain the perennially enlarged breasts of human females. The nubility hypothesis propsoed that hominid females evolved portruding breasts because the size and shape of breasts funciton as an honest signal of residual reproductive value. Hominid females with greater residual reproductive value were preferred by males once reliable cues to ovulation were lost and long-term bonding evolved. This adaptation was favored because female-female competition for investing males increased once hominid males began to provide valuable resources.

 

Body Image. 2007 Dec;4(4):386-90. Epub 2007 Sep 21.

Women’s bust size and men’s courtship solicitation. (pdf)

Gueguen N.
Université de Bretagne-Sud, LSHS, 4, rue Jean Zay, BP 92116, Lorient 56321, France.

Abstract

Previous studies have found that women with larger breasts than the average were considered to be more physically attractive. In these studies attractiveness was measured with the help of silhouette figures or photographs and the effect of breast size on men’s behaviour was not considered. In this study two experiments were carried out in order to test the effect of a woman’s breast size on approaches made by males. We hypothesized that an increase in breast size would be associated with an increase in approaches by men. A young female confederate was instructed to wear a bra that permitted her to artificially vary her breast size. In the first experiment the female confederate was instructed to sit in a nightclub for one hour whereas in the second experiment she was instructed to take a seat in a pavement area of a bar. It was found that increasing the breast size of the female confederate was associated with an increasing number of approaches by men.

 

Percept Mot Skills. 2007 Dec;105(3 Pt 2):1294-8.

Bust size and hitchhiking: a field study. (pdf)

Guéguen N.
Université de Bretagne Sud, UFR LSHS, 4 rue Jean Zay, BP 92116, 56321 Lorient, France.

Abstract

To test the effect of a woman’s bust size on the rate of help offered, 1200 male and female French motorists were tested in a hitchhiking situation. A 20-yr.-old female confederate wore a bra which permitted variation in the size of cup to vary her breast size. She stood by the side of a road frequented by hitchhikers and held out her thumb to catch a ride. Increasing the bra-size of the female-hitchhiker was significantly associated with an increase in number of male drivers, but not female drivers, who stopped to offer a ride.

 

Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 30, Number 3, February 2001 , pp. 481-489(9)

Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology. (pdf)

Marlow F., University of California, Santa Barbara; Westman A.

Abstract

Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is widely cited by evolutionary psychologists as an example of an evolved male preference. Although many studies have found men prefer a low WHR, almost all have been conducted with college students. We tested men in a foraging society and found that they preferred high WHRs. We interpret this as a preference for heavier women, which we think should be common where there is no risk of obesity. Based on these results and others, we suggest that WHR preference varies with ecology. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

 

Psychol Health Med. 2006 May;11(2):129-41.

The relative influence of facial neoteny and waist-to-hip ratio on judgements of female attractiveness and fecundity.

Furnham A, Reeves E.
Department of Psychology, University College London, London WC1H OAP, UK.

Abstract

Numerous studies have demonstrated that waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) affects perceptions of female physical attractiveness and fecundity. This study tested the assumption that facial attractiveness explained more variance in overall ratings and fecundity than WHR, when the latter is manipulated within the normal range (0.67 - 0.85). One hundred and sixty-one participants (mean age = 21.5) rated the attractiveness, youthfulness, fertility, healthiness and likelihood of being pregnant for 27 photographs of three females in which facial attractiveness in terms of neoteny (three levels) and WHR (three levels) had been systematically digitally manipulated. Facial attractiveness exerted a significant influence on judgements of attractiveness, youthfulness, fertility and healthiness, whereas WHR only affected likelihood of being pregnant. Results are interpreted in terms of neotenous facial attractiveness providing potential mates with information concerning phenotypic and genetic quality.

 

Psychol Rep. 2005 Jun;96(3 Pt 2):1002-8.

Do men believe that physically attractive women are more healthy and capable of having children?

Mathes EW, Arms C, Bryant A, Fields J, Witowski A.
Psychology Department, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 61455, USA.

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to test the hypothesis that men view physical attractiveness as an index of a woman’s health and her capacity to have children. 21 men and 26 women from an introductory psychology course were shown photographs from 1972 of men and women college students, judged in 2002 to be attractive or unattractive. Subjects were asked to rate the photographed individuals’ current health, the probability that they were married, the probability that they had children, and whether they had reproductive problems. The hypothesis was generally supported; the men rated the photographs of attractive women as healthier, more likely to be married, and more likely to have children.

 

J Theor Biol. 2009 Feb 7;256(3):343-50. Epub 2008 Oct 21.

Patterns of subcutaneous fat deposition and the relationship between body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio: implications for models of physical attractiveness. (pdf)

Cornelissen PL, Toveé MJ, Bateson M.
Department of Psychology, University of York, UK.

Abstract

Body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) are two widely used anthropometric indices of body shape argued to convey different information about health and fertility. Both indices have also been shown to affect attractiveness ratings of female bodies. However, BMI and WHR are naturally positively correlated, complicating studies designed to identify their relative importance in predicting health and attractiveness outcomes. We show that the correlation between BMI and WHR depends on the assumed model of subcutaneous fat deposition. An additive model, whereby fat is added to the waist and hips at a constant rate, predicts a correlation between BMI and WHR because with increasing fat, the difference between the waist and hips becomes smaller relative to total width. This model is supported by longitudinal and cross-sectional data. We parameterized the function relating WHR to BMI for white UK females of reproductive age, and used this function to statistically decompose body shape into two independent components. We show that judgements of the attractiveness of female bodies are well explained by the component of curvaceousness related to BMI but not by residual curvaceousness. Our findings resolve a long-standing dispute in the attractiveness literature by confirming that although WHR appears to be an important predictor of attractiveness, this is largely explained by the direct effect of total body fat on WHR, thus reinforcing the conclusion that total body fat is the primary determinant of female body shape attractiveness.

 

Biol Psychol. 2005 Mar;68(3):299-308.

Men’s ratings of female attractiveness are influenced more by changes in female waist size compared with changes in hip size.

Rozmus-Wrzesinska M, Pawlowski B.
Department of Anthropology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Kuznicza 35, Wroclaw 50-138, Poland.

Abstract

Women’s attractiveness has been found to be negatively correlated with waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) in many studies. Two components of this ratio can, however, carry different signals for a potential mate. Hip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy. Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status. To assess which of these two dimensions is more important for men’s perception of female attractiveness, we used a series of photographs of a woman with WHR manipulated either by hip or waist changes. Attractiveness was correlated negatively with WHR, when WHR was manipulated by waist size. The relation was inverted-U shape when WHR was changed by hip size. We postulate that in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about fecundity and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female’s attractiveness.

 

Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2004 Sep;30(9):1186-97.

Playboy Playmate curves: changes in facial and body feature preferences across social and economic conditions. (pdf)

Pettijohn TF 2nd, Jungeberg BJ.
Department of Psychology, Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA 06546-0001, USA.

Abstract

Past research has investigated ideals of beauty and how these ideals have changed across time. In the current study, facial and body characteristics of Playboy Playmates of the Year from 1960-2000 were identified and investigated to explore their relationships with U.S. social and economic factors. Playmate of the Year age, body feature measures, and facial feature measurements were correlated with a general measure of social and economic hard times. Consistent with Environmental Security Hypothesis predictions, when social and economic conditions were difficult, older, heavier, taller Playboy Playmates of the Year with larger waists, smaller eyes, larger waist-to-hip ratios, smaller bust-to-waist ratios, and smaller body mass index values were selected. These results suggest that environmental security may influence perceptions and preferences for women with certain body and facial features.

 

Proc Biol Sci. 2004 Feb 22;271(1537):347-52.

Visual perception of female physical attractiveness. (pdf)

Fan J, Liu F, Wu J, Dai W.
Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.

Abstract

On the basis of visual assessment of figure drawings and front/profile images, past researchers believed that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) and the body mass index (BMI) were two putative cues to female physical attractiveness. However, this view was not tested on three-dimensional (3D) female images. In the present study, 3D images of 31 Caucasian females having varying body weights (BMI ranged from 16 to 35) were shown to 29 male and 25 female viewers, who were asked to rate the physical attractiveness. The results showed that the body volume divided by the square of the height, defined as volume height index (VHI), is the most important and direct visual determinant of female physical attractiveness. In determining the female attractiveness, human observers may first use VHI as a visual cue, which is also a key indicator of health and fertility owing to its strong linear relation to BMI. To fine-tune the judgement, observers may then use body proportions, the most important of which are the ratio of waist height over the chin height (WHC) (a measure of the length of legs over total tallness) and the deviation of WHR from the ideal ratio. It also appears that the effect of the body’s physical parameters on the perception of female physical attractiveness conforms to Stevens’ power law of psychophysics.

 

J Cosmet Dermatol. 2006 Jun;5(2):190-4.

The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness.

Fisher ML, Voracek M.
Department of Psychology, St. Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada.

Abstract

Rarely has one research area gained as much attention as that which is observed for female physical attractiveness. The past decade has resulted in numerous, exciting developments, particularly with respect to three proposed determinants of beauty: waist to hip ratio (WHR), body mass index (BMI), and curvaceousness. The goal of our paper is to provide a highly necessary review of contemporary research on the female attractiveness, including an in-depth examination of these factors. In our review, we first discuss WHR, an index of fat deposition, which is calculated by measuring the circumference of the waist compared to the circumference of the hips. WHR is controlled by the sex hormones, and increases as women age, and hence, may influence perceptions of attractiveness. This factor has been hotly contested, as some researchers have claimed that a WHR of approximately 0.7 is universally most attractive, whereas others have found inconsistent findings, or suggest the importance of other factors, such as BMI. Body mass index (BMI), calculated by dividing the body weight (in kilograms) by height (in meters) squared, serves as a measure of body fat. Although WHR and BMI are correlated, they lead to different conclusions, and the importance of BMI as a measure of female attractiveness is debated in the literature. Similar to WHR research, BMI and its role in attractiveness is not cross-culturally consistent and is affected by the availability of resources within a given environment. It may be the case that both WHR and BMI influence female attractiveness. However, there has been little investigation of this possibility. We have explored this issue in our research, which revealed that both influence attractiveness, but in addition, we noticed that curvaceousness was also a factor. Curvaceousness is the degree of "hourglass" shape as determined, for example, by the size of the bust, relative to the circumference of the hips and waist, and the size of the buttocks. However, curvaceousness does not appear to be temporally stable as a marker of attractiveness, and it is not consistent across modes of presentation. For example, models in male-oriented magazines are more curvaceous than models in female-oriented magazines. In summary, faced with these recent findings, it is difficult to ascertain agreement among the various factors, especially when researchers investigate each determinant in isolation. We conclude that, although researchers have made many important initial steps in examining female attractiveness, there remains much to be discovered.

 

Proc Biol Sci. 1999 Jan 22;266(1415):211-8.

Visual cues to female physical attractiveness. (pdf)

Tovée MJ, Maisey DS, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL.
Department of Psychology, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.

Abstract

Evolutionary psychology suggests that a woman’s sexual attractiveness is based on cues of health and reproductive potential. In recent years, research has focused on the ratio of the width of the waist to the width of the hips (the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). A low WHR (i.e. a curvaceous body) is believed to correspond to the optimal fat distribution for high fertility, and so this shape should be highly attractive. In this paper we present evidence that weight scaled for height (the body mass index (BMI)) is the primary determinant of sexual attractiveness rather than WHR. BMI is also strongly linked to health and reproductive potential. Furthermore, we show how covariation of apparent BMI and WHR in previous studies led to the overestimation of the importance of WHR in the perception of female attractiveness. Finally, we show how visual cues, such as the perimeter-area ratio (PAR), can provide an accurate and reliable index of an individual’s BMI and could be used by an observer to differentiate between potential partners.

 

Perception. 2008;37(7):1079-85.

Men’s attraction to women’s bodies changes seasonally. (pdf)

Pawlowski B, Sorokowski P.
Department of Anthropology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.

Abstract

Humans exhibit seasonal variation in hormone levels, behaviour, and perception. Here we show that men’s assessments of women’s attractiveness change also seasonally. In five seasons (from winter 2004 to winter 2005) 114 heterosexual men were asked to assess the attractiveness of the same stimuli: photos of a female with three different waist-to-hip ratios; photos of female breasts, and photos of average-looking faces of young women. For each season, the scores given to the stimuli of the same category (body shape, breast, and face) were combined. Friedman’s test revealed significant changes for body shape and breast attractiveness assessments across the seasons, but no changes for face ratings. The highest scores for attractiveness were given in winter and the lowest in summer. We suggest that the observed seasonality is related to the well-known ‘contrast effect’. More frequent exposure to women’s bodies in warmer seasons might increase men’s attractiveness criteria for women’s body shape and breasts.

 

Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002 Dec;23 Suppl 4:81-91.

Female mate value at a glance: relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness. (pdf)

Singh D.
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.

Abstract

A fundamental assumption of adaptive explanations of female attractiveness is that bodily features that males judge as attractive reliably signal youthfulness, healthiness, and fertility or female mate value. One of the bodily features, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), is a reliable indicator of a female’s reproductive age, sex hormone profile, parity and risk for various diseases. Systematic variation in the size of WHR also systematically affects the judgment of female attractiveness, healthiness, and youthfulness. This article summarizes recent findings about the relationship between female’s WHR and various factors affecting reproductive capability and risk for diseases. Research on the relationship between attractiveness and WHR is discussed in light of some methodological objections to previous research. Finally, cross-cultural and historical data are presented that suggest that the relationship between WHR and female attractiveness is not culture-specific and not inculcated by modern Western fashion dictates or media.

 

Percept Mot Skills. 2007 Jun;104(3 Pt 2):1123-38.

Sex differences in relative foot length and perceived attractiveness of female feet: relationships among anthropometry, physique, and preference ratings. (pdf)

Voracek M, Fisher ML, Rupp B, Lucas D, Fessler DM.
Department of Basic Psychological Research, School of Psychology, University of Vienna, Austria.

Abstract

Foot size proportionate to stature is smaller in women than in men, and small feet apparently contribute to perceived physical attractiveness of females. This exploratory study investigated the sex difference in relative foot length and interrelations among foot length, physique, and foot preference ratings in samples from Austria and Canada, each comprised of 75 men and 75 women. The findings included the following lines of evidence: the sex difference in relative foot length replicated in both data sets; the magnitude of this sex effect was large. Relative foot length was smaller in young, nulliparous, and slim women. Pointed-toe and high-heel shoes were more likely worn by smaller, lighter, and slimmer women. Men reported liking women’s feet in general more than vice versa. A vast majority of both men and women favored small feet in women, but large feet in men. One’s own foot size appeared to correspond to evaluations of attractiveness; particularly, women with small feet preferred small feet in women in general. The preference for small feet in women was convergent across different methods of evaluating attractiveness. Directions for investigations in this emerging field of research on physical attractiveness are discussed.

 

Evolutionary Psychology. www.epjournal.net – 2010. 8(1): 66-89

The role of human body movements in mate selection. (pdf)

Abstract

Abstract: It is common scientific knowledge, that most of what we say within a conversation is not only expressed by the words’ meaning alone, but also through our gestures, postures, and body movements. This non-verbal mode is possibly rooted firmly in our human evolutionary heritage, and as such, some scientists argue that it serves as a fundamental assessment and expression tool for our inner qualities. Studies of nonverbal communication have established that a universal, culture-free, non-verbal sign system exists, that is available to all individuals for negotiating social encounters. Thus, it is not only the kind of gestures and expressions humans use in social communication, but also the way these movements are performed, as this seems to convey key information about an individual’s quality. Dance, for example, is a special form of movement, which can be observed in human courtship displays. Recent research suggests that people are sensitive to the variation in dance movements, and that dance performance provides information about
an individual’s mate quality in terms of health and strength. This article reviews the role of
body movement in human non-verbal communication, and highlights its significance in human mate preferences in order to promote future work in this research area within the evolutionary psychology framework.

 

Journal of Social, Evolutionary and Cultural Psychology, 3(2), 81-92.

A woman’s walk: Attractiveness in motion. (pdf)

Abstract

Men are attracted to the movements of women?s bodies. The aim of this paper is to answer the question: what is the mechanism? The role of the peak shift effect in perceptions of physical attractiveness involving women?s waist-to-hip ratios (WHRs) in biological motion is presented. Photographs of a coordinated motor pattern, walking, are investigated with a novel measurement method. Evidence is presented that the behavior pattern contains alternating left and right side, attractive (S+) and unattractive (S-), WHR stimuli. A WHR stimulus range is established that is sufficient to generate peak shift effects in perceptions of physical attractiveness. It is predicted that WHRs in attractive behavior patterns will be significantly lower than those previously found to be preferred using 0.70 WHR still images. Therefore WHRs in motion represent S++, or “supernormal stimuli”,
in behavior.

 

J Sex Med. 2008 Sep;5(9):2119-24. Epub 2008 Jul 15.

A woman’s history of vaginal orgasm is discernible from her walk.

Nicholas A, Brody S, de Sutter P, de Carufel F.
Université Catholique de Louvain, Institut d’études de la famille et de la sexualité, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION: Research has demonstrated the association between vaginal orgasm and better mental health. Some theories of psychotherapy assert a link between muscle blocks and disturbances of both character and sexual function. In Functional-Sexological therapy, one focus of treatment is amelioration of voluntary movement. The present study examines the association of general everyday body movement with history of vaginal orgasm. AIM: The objective was to determine if appropriately trained sexologists could infer women’s history of vaginal orgasm from observing only their gait. METHODS: Women with known histories of either vaginal orgasm or vaginal anorgasmia were videotaped walking on the street, and their orgasmic status was judged by sexologists blind to their history. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The concordance between having had orgasms triggered by penile-vaginal intercourse (not orgasm from direct clitoral stimulation) and raters’ inferences of vaginal orgasm history based on observation of the woman’s walk was the main outcome measure. RESULTS: In the sample of healthy young Belgian women (half of whom were vaginally orgasmic), history of vaginal orgasm (triggered solely by penile-vaginal intercourse) was diagnosable at far better than chance level (81.25% correct, Fisher’s Exact Test P

 

Horm Behav. 1995 Sep;29(3):354-66.

Hormones, sex, and status in women. (pdf)

Cashdan E.
Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City 84112, USA.

Abstract

Androgens are often associated with assertive behavior; under what circumstances is this reflected in higher dominance rank? In this study of coresidential college women, androgens (total testosterone, free testosterone, and androstenedione) and estradiol were positively correlated with high self-regard in women (as measured by the degree to which subjects over-ranked themselves in a peer-ranking task) and with infrequent smiling, a behavior that has been associated with dominance in previous studies. Androgens and estradiol were also positively correlated with number of sexual partners. The behaviors engendered by these hormones are often positively correlated with high dominance rank, at least in males. In this population, however, high rank (as judged by peer assessments) was negatively correlated with androgens, particularly androstenedione, and showed a negative trend with estradiol as well. One possible interpretation of these findings is suggested by an evolutionary perspective that sees different routes to status among women who compete for resources directly and women who obtain resources through investing males.

 

Biol Lett. 2009 Apr 23;5(2):179-82. Epub 2009 Jan 13.

Oestradiol level and opportunistic mating in women. (pdf)

Durante KM, Li NP.
Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-0187, USA.

Abstract

The ovarian steroid hormone oestradiol plays a crucial role in female fertility, sexual motivation and behaviour. We investigated the relationship between oestradiol and the likelihood that women would engage in opportunistic mating. Two salivary samples were taken from normally cycling women within the peri-ovulatory and luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. At both testing sessions, participants also completed self-perceived desirability scales and provided subjective reports of sexual and social motivations, and satisfaction with their primary relationship partner. Oestradiol level was positively associated with a woman’s self- and other-perceived physical attractiveness and with inclinations to mate outside her current relationship. Oestradiol was marginally negatively associated with a woman’s satisfaction with her primary partner and relationship commitment. Results provide support for the relationship between physical beauty and fertility and suggest that physiological mechanisms play a major role in guiding a woman’s mating strategies.

 

Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007 Mar;1098:446-50.

Patterns of salivary estradiol and progesterone across the menstrual cycle. (pdf)

Gandara BK, Leresche L, Mancl L.
Department of Oral Medicine, Box 356370, School of Dentistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to characterize the normality of menstrual cycles on the basis of progesterone and estradiol levels in self-collected saliva samples. Twenty-two women, ages 19-40 years, self-collected whole unstimulated saliva specimens each morning for two consecutive menstrual cycles. On the basis of presence/timing of hormone peaks, two investigators classified 24 cycles as normal, 10 as likely normal, and 10 as clearly not normal with respect to expected profiles. Our results show that whole saliva samples collected at home on a daily basis provide a noninvasive, feasible method of determining menstrual cycle profiles.

 

Endocr J. 2009 Jun;56(3):521-3. Epub 2009 Feb 4.

Salivary sex hormones during the menstrual cycle. (pdf)

Celec P, Ostaniková D, Skoknová M, Hodosy J, Putz Z, Kúdela M.
Department of Molecular Biology, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia.

Abstract

Infradian rhythms of sex hormones in women are important in several physiological and pathophysiological processes. Detailed analyses of these rhythms are difficult due to problems with sampling. Salivary levels of sex steroids are widely used when repeated sampling is needed. However, a description of variation during the menstrual cycle with daily sampling is lacking. In our study salivary levels of testosterone, estradiol and progesterone were measured in samples collected daily by 17 young healthy women (21,2+/-0,7 years) during one menstrual cycle. Sex steroid levels were determined using radioimmunoassay. The dynamics of salivary sex steroids in our study resembles the known dynamics in plasma. Similar patterns for estradiol and testosterone confirm the hypothesis that in women testosterone serves as a precursor for estradiol. The primary (periovulatory) peak and secondary (luteal) peak of testosterone are followed by similar peaks of estradiol. Progesterone reaches maximum concentrations during the luteal phase. This study shows that analysis of salivary levels of sex steroids are informative and can be used in neuroendocrine, chronobiological and other research areas, when repeated sampling is needed.

 

Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Apr 22;268(1469):797-801.

Female body odour is a potential cue to ovulation. (pdf)

Singh D, Bronstad PM.
Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin 78712, USA.

Abstract

Human body odours have been reported to influence female mate choice. Women prefer the odours of immunocompatible men and, during their fertile period, judge the body odours of men with symmetrical bodies--which is indicative of genetic quality--as sexy and pleasant. The reproductive success of men largely depends on mating with fertile women, but it is not known whether men can detect a woman’s fertile period. We asked women who had regular menstrual cycles and who were not using hormonal contraceptives to wear a T-shirt for three consecutive nights during their late follicular (ovulatory) phase and another T-shirt during the luteal (non-ovulatory) phase of their menstrual cycle. Male raters judged the odours of T-shirts worn during the follicular phase as more pleasant and sexy than odours from T-shirts worn during the luteal phase. The odour differences between the follicular and luteal phases did not dissipate quickly over time as male raters were able to detect and judge follicular phase body odours as more pleasant and sexy than the odours from the luteal phase even after the T-shirts were kept at room temperature for one week. These findings suggest that ovulation may not be concealed and that men could use ovulation-linked odours in their mate selection.

 

Biol Lett. 2005 Sep 22;1(3):256-9.

Women’s preference for dominant male odour: effects of menstrual cycle and relationship status. (pdf)

Havlicek J, Roberts SC, Flegr J.
Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, Husnikova 2075, 155 00 Prague, Czech Republic.

Abstract

Body odour may provide significant cues about a potential sexual partner’s genetic quality, reproductive status and health. In animals, a key trait in a female’s choice of sexual partner is male dominance but, to date, this has not been examined in humans. Here, we show that women in the fertile phase of their cycle prefer body odour of males who score high on a questionnaire-based dominance scale (international personality items pool). In accordance with the theory of mixed mating strategies, this preference varies with relationship status, being much stronger in fertile women in stable relationships than in fertile single women.

 

Hum Reprod. 2002 Sep;17(9):2243-8.

Do women have a hidden heat period? (pdf)

Tarín JJ, Gómez-Piquer V.
Department of Functional Biology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Valencia, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.

Abstract

This article aims to throw light on the controversial topic of whether women have a ‘heat’ period within their menstrual cycle. The majority of publications in this field report, in addition to a periovulatory peak, no changes at all or even rises in male- and female-initiated sexual activity, woman’s sexual desire, autosexual activity and sexual arousability, and interpersonal sexual activities during the mid-follicular and late luteal phases. The lack of a distinct pattern of women’s sexual behaviour across the menstrual cycle may be explained by the interplay between cyclical endocrine fluctuations and many psychological, social, cultural and environmental factors, as well as the methodological shortcomings associated with menstrual cycle research. However, studies focused on cycling changes in women’s olfactory and visual perception show that, in comparison with women at other phases of the menstrual cycle, women at mid-cycle exhibit increased sexual motivation that biases recognition performance towards objects with a sexual meaning, evaluate the unattractive sweat substance androstenone as more pleasant, and display enhanced preference for the odour and face shape of masculinized, physically attractive and symmetric men. On the other hand, men find the scent of women at mid-cycle more pleasant and sexually attractive than during the luteal phase.

 

Br J Psychol. 2006 Aug;97(Pt 3):353-63.

Does hunger influence judgments of female physical attractiveness? (pdf)

Swami V, Tovée MJ.
Department of Psychology, University College of London, UK.

Abstract

To account for male preferences for female body weight following a consistent socio-economic pattern, Nelson and Morrison (2005) proposed a social-cognitive model based on the individual experience of resource scarcity. We replicated their studies showing that calorific dissatisfaction can influence preference for female body weight using a different dependent variable, namely photographic stimuli of women with known body weight and shape. Using this revised methodology, we found that operationalized intra-individual resource scarcity affects preferences for body weight: 30 hungry male participants preferred figures with a higher body weight and rated as more attractive heavier figures than 31 satiated male participants. Hungrier men were also less likely to be influenced by cues for body shape, supporting extant cross-cultural studies on female physical attractiveness. These findings corroborate those of Nelson and Morrison (2005) and are discussed in terms of how cultural contexts shape individual psychological experience as predicted by the theory of mutual constitution.

 

Psychology Science, Volume 48, 2006 (2), p. 187 - 204

 

Female appearance: facial and bodily attractiveness as shape (pdf)

Katrin Schaefer, Bernhard Fink, Karl Grammer, Philipp Mitteroecker, Philipp G & Fred l. Bookstein

Abstract

Human physical attractiveness is supposed to reflect developmental stability (i.e. the ability of individuals to maintain stable development of their morphology under a given environmental condition) and physiological status. Hence, evolutionary psychologists have suggested that appearance may not only reveal so called ‘honest signals’ but even comprise a single ornament of mate value. However, it is still a matter of debate which physical features affect the ratings of female beauty, and whether these features are truly associated with as- pects of developmental and physiological status. Here we present morphometric data of images of faces and bodies from 92 women together with ratings of attractiveness by 60 men. A total of 101 somatometric landmarks were digitized as two-dimensional coordinates from three views: facial, front and back full-body view. These image sets were analyzed separately by means of geometric morphometric methodology (GMM). Attractiveness rat- ings of the face and body were significantly associated with both (i) the amount of fluctuat- ing asymmetry (as a measure of developmental stability), and (ii) specific localized shape differences in regions of known estrogen sensitivity. The results support the notion that ratings of women’s physical attractiveness are indeed based on indicators of developmental stability and physiological status.

 

Psychol Rep. 2002 Jun;90(3 Pt 1):949-56.

An evolutionary perspective on the interaction of age and sex differences in short-term sexual strategies.

Mathes EW, King CA, Miller JK, Reed RM.
Psychology Department, Western Illinois University, Macomb 61455, USA.

Abstract

Buss and Schmitt’s sexual strategies theory (1993) suggests that short-term mating represents a larger component of men’s than women’s mating strategies. Assuming this sex difference there is potential for conflict. Symons argued that, because men are more interested in copulation than women, this gives women greater power in establishing conditions (short- vs long-term) under which copulation takes place. The result is that the conflict in sexual strategies is resolved in favor of women’s relatively greater interest in long-term sexual strategies. This research tested the hypothesis that across ages men would decrease in desire to employ short-term mating strategies in favor of long-term mating strategies. Specifically, in Study I, men and women in their teens, twenties, and thirties or older were given a measure of desire for a committed relationship. It was predicted that women, regardless of age, would score high on desire for a committed relationship. In contrast, teenage boys would score low on desire for a committed relationship while men in their thirties or older would score as high as the women. In Study II both sexes in their teens, twenties, and thirties or older were given measures of desire for promiscuous sex. It was predicted that the women, regardless of age, would score low on desire for promiscuous sex. In contrast, teenage boys would score high on desire for promiscuous sex while men in their thirties or older would score as low as the women. Support was found for both predictions.

 

Evolution and Human Behavior, Vol. 31, No. 3. (May 2010), pp. 157-175.

Beauty and the beast: mechanisms of sexual selection in humans (pdf)

David A. Puts

Abstract

Literature in evolutionary psychology suggests that mate choice has been the primary mechanism of sexual selection in humans, but this conclusion conforms neither to theoretical predictions nor available evidence. Contests override other mechanisms of sexual selection; that is, when individuals can exclude their competitors by force or threat of force, mate choice, sperm competition, and other mechanisms are impossible. Mates are easier to monopolize in two dimensional mating environments, such as land, than in three-dimensional environments, such as air, water, and trees. Thus, two-dimensional mating environments may tend to favor the evolution of contests. The two-dimensionality of the human mating environment, along with phylogeny, the spatial and temporal clustering of mates and competitors, and anatomical considerations, predict that contest competition should have been the primary mechanism of sexual selection in men. A functional analysis supports this prediction. Men’s traits are better designed for contest competition than for other sexual selection mechanisms; size, muscularity, strength, aggression, and the manufacture and use of weapons probably helped ancestral males win contests directly, and deep voices and facial hair signal dominance more effectively than they increase attractiveness. However, male monopolization of females was imperfect, and female mate choice, sperm competition, and sexual coercion also likely shaped men’s traits. In contrast, male mate choice was probably central in women’s mating competition because ancestral females could not constrain the choices of larger and more aggressive males through force, and attractive women could obtain greater male investment. Neotenous female features and body fat deposition on the breasts and hips appear to have been shaped by male mate choice.

 

Evolutionary Psychology. www.epjournal.net – 2008. 6(1): 134-146

Attractive Women Want it All: Good Genes, Economic Investment, Parenting Proclivities, and Emotional Commitment (pdf)

David M. Buss, Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA. Email:
. Todd K. Shackelford, Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, FL, USA.

Abstract

The current research tests the hypothesis that women have an evolved mate value calibration adaptation that functions to raise or lower their standards in a long-term mate according to their own mate value. A woman’s physical attractiveness is a cardinal component of women’s mate value. We correlated observer-assessed physical attractiveness (face, body, and overall) with expressed preferences for four clusters of mate characteristics (N = 214): (1) hypothesized good-gene indicators (e.g., masculinity, sexiness); (2) hypothesized good investment indicators (e.g., potential income); (3) good parenting indicators (e.g., desire for home and children), and (4) good partner indicators (e.g., being a loving partner). Results supported the hypothesis that high mate value women, as indexed by observer-judged physical attractiveness, expressed elevated standards for all four clusters of mate characteristics. Discussion focuses on potential design features of the hypothesized mate-value calibration adaptation, and suggests an important modification of the trade-off model of women’s mating. A minority of women— notably those low in mate value who are able to escape male mate guarding and the manifold costs of an exposed infidelity—will pursue a mixed mating strategy, obtaining investment from one man and good genes from an extra-pair copulation partner (as the trade-off model predicts). Since the vast majority of women secure genes and direct benefits from the same man, however, most women will attempt to secure the best combination of all desired qualities from the same man.

 

Mankind Quarterly, 2007

Female Attractiveness: Evolutionary Psychology’s Unfinished Business (pdf)
John Glad. University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland

Abstract

This article argues that many of the mechanisms that determine perceptions of female attractiveness are shaped by sexual selection, but the behavioral expression of these preferences is regulated by higher-order mechanisms of behavioral homeostasis. Until such problems as the nature and mechanism of female beauty are resolved, sociobiology must be viewed as an unproven methodology.

 

Psychol Sci. 2008 Jul;19(7):669-77.

If I’m not hot, are you hot or not? Physical attractiveness evaluations and dating preferences as a function of one’s own attractiveness. (pdf)

Lee L, Loewenstein G, Ariely D, Hong J, Young J.
Columbia Business School, Columbia University, Uris Hall, 3022 Broadway, Room 508, NewYork, NY 10027-6902, USA.

Abstract

Prior research has established that people’s own physical attractiveness affects their selection of romantic partners. This article provides further support for this effect and also examines a different, yet related, question: When less attractive people accept less attractive dates, do they persuade themselves that the people they choose to date are more physically attractive than others perceive them to be? Our analysis of data from the popular Web site http://HOTorNOT.com suggests that this is not the case: Less attractive people do not delude themselves into thinking that their dates are more physically attractive than others perceive them to be. Furthermore, the results also show that males, compared with females, are less affected by their own attractiveness when choosing whom to date.

 

Journal of Individual Differences. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 35-43

Evaluating the Physical Attractiveness of Oneself and One’s Romantic Partner: Individual and Relationship Correlates of the Love-Is-Blind Bias (pdf)

Viren Swamia, Stefan Stiegerb, Tanja Haubnerc, Martin Voracekc and Adrian Furnhamd

Abstract

The present study sought to extend recent work by examining individual and relationship variables that predict the love-is-blind bias, that is, a tendency to perceive one’s romantic partner as more attractive than oneself. A sample of 113 men and 143 women completed a battery of tests that included various demographic, individual difference, and relationship-related measures. Results provided support for a love-is-blind bias, in that both women and men rated their romantic partners as significantly more attractive than themselves on overall attractiveness and the attractiveness of various body components. Results also showed that the Big Five personality factor of Extraversion, self-esteem, relationship satisfaction, and romantic love were positively correlated with the love-is-blind bias, whereas relationship length and playful love were negatively correlated with the bias. The results of this study are considered in relation to previous work on positive partner illusions.

 

J Pers Soc Psychol. 2008 Feb;94(2):245-64.

Sex differences in mate preferences revisited: do people know what they initially desire in a romantic partner? (pdf)

Eastwick PW, Finkel EJ.
Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-2710, USA.

Abstract

In paradigms in which participants state their ideal romantic-partner preferences or examine vignettes and photographs, men value physical attractiveness more than women do, and women value earning prospects more than men do. Yet it remains unclear if these preferences remain sex differentiated in predicting desire for real-life potential partners (i.e., individuals whom one has actually met). In the present study, the authors explored this possibility using speed dating and longitudinal follow-up procedures. Replicating previous research, participants exhibited traditional sex differences when stating the importance of physical attractiveness and earning prospects in an ideal partner and ideal speed date. However, data revealed no sex differences in the associations between participants’ romantic interest in real-life potential partners (met during and outside of speed dating) and the attractiveness and earning prospects of those partners. Furthermore, participants’ ideal preferences, assessed before the speed-dating event, failed to predict what inspired their actual desire at the event. Results are discussed within the context of R. E. Nisbett and T. D. Wilson’s (1977) seminal article: Even regarding such a consequential aspect of mental life as romantic-partner preferences, people may lack introspective awareness of what influences their judgments and behavior. (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved

 

On Beauty: Evolution, Psychosocial Considerations, and Surgical Enhancement (pdf)

Murad Alam, MD; Jeffrey S. Dover, MD, FRCPC

Abstract

Beauty, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is “a combination of qualities, in- cluding grace of form and charm of coloring that delights the sight or other senses.” In practice, beauty may be easier to recognize than to define. We may each know it when we see it, hear it, or smell it, but to accurately describe beauty or the features that impart it to a face, song, or scent can be daunting. Aaron Spelling, the Hollywood producer, explains that he “can’t define it, but [he] know[s] it when it walks into the room.”2(p8) Physiological reactions may be triggered by the sudden apprehension of the beautiful object, as one modeling agent has noted: “It’s when someone opens the door and you almost can’t breathe.”2(p8) In narrow usage, as applied to persons, beauty may be characterized as an individual or societal assessment of attractiveness influenced by cultural standards.

 

Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2010 Mar;36(3):339-53.

What is beautiful is good because what is beautiful is desired: physical attractiveness stereotyping as projection of interpersonal goals.

Lemay EP Jr, Clark MS, Greenberg A.
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.

Abstract

The authors posit that the attribution of desirable interpersonal qualities to physically attractive targets is a projection of interpersonal goals; people desire to form and maintain close social bonds with attractive targets and then project these motivations onto those targets. Three studies support this model. Tendencies to see attractive novel targets depicted in photographs (Study 1), attractive romantic partners (Study 2), and attractive friends (Study 3) as especially interpersonally receptive and responsive were explained by perceivers’ heightened desires to bond with attractive individuals. Additional findings regarding response latencies (Study 1) also supported this model. Many instances of the "beautiful is good" effect may not reflect stereotyping as it is typically construed. Rather, they may reflect projection of heightened desires to bond with beautiful people.

 

Body Image. 2008 Mar;5(1):99-108. Epub 2007 Sep 24.

Positive illusions about one’s partner’s physical attractiveness.

Barelds-Dijkstra P, Barelds DP.
Heymans Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.

Abstract

This study examined couples’ ratings of self and partner physical attractiveness. On the basis of the theory of positive illusions, it was expected that individuals would rate their partners as more attractive than their partners would rate themselves. Both members of 93 heterosexual couples, with a mean relationship length of about 14 years, provided ratings of both their own and their partner’s physical attractiveness. Results support the theory that individuals hold positive illusions about their partner’s physical attractiveness. Implications of these results in terms of relationship-enhancing biases are discussed.

 

Intelligence. Volume 32, Issue 3, May-June 2004, Pages 227-243

Why beautiful people are more intelligent (pdf)

Satoshi KanazawaCorresponding Author Contact Information, a, Corresponding Author Contact Information, E-mail The Corresponding Author and Jody L. Kovarb

Abstract

Empirical studies demonstrate that individuals perceive physically attractive others to be more intelligent than physically unattractive others. While most researchers dismiss this perception as a “bias” or “stereotype,” we contend that individuals have this perception because beautiful people indeed are more intelligent. The conclusion that beautiful people are more intelligent follows from four assumptions. (1) Men who are more intelligent are more likely to attain higher status than men who are less intelligent. (2) Higher-status men are more likely to mate with more beautiful women than lower-status men. (3) Intelligence is heritable. (4) Beauty is heritable. If all four assumptions are empirically true, then the conclusion that beautiful people are more intelligent is logically true, making it a proven theorem. We present empirical evidence for each of the four assumptions. While we concentrate on the relationship between beauty and intelligence in this paper, our evolutionary psychological explanation can account for a correlation between physical attractiveness and any other heritable trait that helps men attain higher status (such as aggression and social skills).

 

Psychol Bull. 2005 Sep;131(5):635-53.

Physical attractiveness and health in Western societies: a review. (pdf)

Weeden J, Sabini J.
Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
Comment in: Psychol Bull. 2005 Sep;131(5):658-61. Psychol Bull. 2005 Sep;131(5):654-7.

Abstract

Evidence from developed Western societies is reviewed for the claims that (a) physical attractiveness judgments are substantially based on body size and shape, symmetry, sex-typical hormonal markers, and other specific cues and (b) physical attractiveness and these cues substantially predict health. Among the cues that the authors review, only female waist-to-hip ratio and weight appear to predict both attractiveness and health in the claimed manner. Other posited cues--symmetry and sex-typical hormonal markers among them--failed to predict either attractiveness or health (or both) in either sex. The authors find that there is some indication that attractiveness has an overall relationship with health among women, but little indication that male attractiveness relates to male health.

 

Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2010 Mar;36(3):309-25.

The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: results of the international body project I. (pdf)

Swami V, et al
University of Westminster, UK.

Abstract

This study reports results from the first International Body Project (IBP-I), which surveyed 7,434 individuals in 10 major world regions about body weight ideals and body dissatisfaction. Participants completed the female Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale (CDFRS) and self-reported their exposure to Western and local media. Results indicated there were significant cross-regional differences in the ideal female figure and body dissatisfaction, but effect sizes were small across high-socioeconomic-status (SES) sites. Within cultures, heavier bodies were preferred in low-SES sites compared to high-SES sites in Malaysia and South Africa (ds = 1.94-2.49) but not in Austria. Participant age, body mass index (BMI), and Western media exposure predicted body weight ideals. BMI and Western media exposure predicted body dissatisfaction among women. Our results show that body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness is commonplace in high-SES settings across world regions, highlighting the need for international attention to this problem.

 

Int J Eat Disord. 2002 Jan;31(1):1-16.

The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: a meta-analytic review. (pdf)

Groesz LM, Levine MP, Murnen SK.
Department of Psychology, Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio 43022-9623, USA.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: The effect of experimental manipulations of the thin beauty ideal, as portrayed in the mass media, on female body image was evaluated using meta-analysis. METHOD: Data from 25 studies (43 effect sizes) were used to examine the main effect of mass media images of the slender ideal, as well as the moderating effects of pre-existing body image problems, the age of the participants, the number of stimulus presentations, and the type of research design. RESULTS: Body image was significantly more negative after viewing thin media images than after viewing images of either average size models, plus size models, or inanimate objects. This effect was stronger for between-subjects designs, participants less than 19 years of age, and for participants who are vulnerable to activation of a thinness schema. CONCLUSION: Results support the sociocultural perspective that mass media promulgate a slender ideal that elicits body dissatisfaction. Implications for prevention and research on social comparison processes are considered. Copyright 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 

J Soc Psychol. 2008 Oct;148(5):577-93.

Lonelier, lazier, and teased: the stigmatizing effect of body size. (pdf)

Swami V, Furnham A, Amin R, Chaudhri J, Joshi K, Jundi S, Miller R, Mirza-Begum J, Begum FN, Sheth P, Tovée MJ.
Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London W1B 2UW, England.

Abstract

The authors conducted 2 studies to examine the stigmatization of the female and male body using photographic stimuli of real people. In the first study, 75 female and 55 male undergraduates rated a series of 50 photographs of women ranging in body mass index (BMI) on 3 items: gets teased, lonely, and lazy. Both male and female observers rated bodies on either side of BMI 19-20 kg/m2 higher for the gets teased and lonely items. For the lazy item, there was a clear pattern of greater stigmatization with increasing BMI. In the second study, 40 male and 40 female observers rated a series of photographs of the male body that varied in BMI and waist-to-chest ratio on the same items. Results showed that men and women judged overweight and more tubular men to be lazier, lonelier, and teased. These findings suggest that body size is an important characteristic to consider when examining body stigmatization among men and women. These results also show support for the beautiful-is-good bias.

 

Biol Lett. 2009 Oct 23;5(5):606-9. Epub 2009 Jul 1.

How universal are human mate choices? Size does not matter when Hadza foragers are choosing a mate. (pdf)

Sear R, Marlowe FW.
Department of Social Policy, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK.

Abstract

It has been argued that size matters on the human mate market: both stated preferences and mate choices have been found to be non-random with respect to height and weight. But how universal are these patterns? Most of the literature on human mating patterns is based on post-industrial societies. Much less is known about mating behaviour in more traditional societies. Here we investigate mate choice by analysing whether there is any evidence for non-random mating with respect to size and strength in a forager community, the Hadza of Tanzania. We test whether couples assort for height, weight, body mass index (BMI), per cent fat and grip strength. We test whether there is a male-taller norm. Finally, we test for an association between anthropometric variables and number of marriages. Our results show no evidence for assortative mating for height, weight, BMI or per cent fat; no evidence for a male-taller norm and no evidence that number of marriages is associated with our size variables. Hadza couples may assort positively for grip strength, but grip strength does not affect the number of marriages. Overall we conclude that, in contrast to post-industrial societies, mating appears to be random with respect to size in the Hadza.

 

Am J Phys Anthropol. 2010 Apr;141(4):620-5.

Male preferences for female waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. (pdf)

Dixson BJ, Sagata K, Linklater WL, Dixson AF.
School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

Abstract

One hundred men, living in three villages in a remote region of the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea were asked to judge the attractiveness of photographs of women who had undergone micrograft surgery to reduce their waist-to-hip ratios (WHRs). Micrograft surgery involves harvesting adipose tissue from the waist and reshaping the buttocks to produce a low WHR and an "hourglass" female figure. Men consistently chose postoperative photographs as being more attractive than preoperative photographs of the same women. Some women gained, and some lost weight, postoperatively, with resultant changes in body mass index (BMI). However, changes in BMI were not related to men’s judgments of attractiveness. These results show that the hourglass female figure is rated as attractive by men living in a remote, indigenous community, and that when controlling for BMI, WHR plays a crucial role in their attractiveness judgments. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

 

Br J Psychol. 2009 May;100(Pt 2):313-25.

Men’s preferences for women’s profile waist-to-hip ratio, breast size, and ethnic group in Britain and South Africa.

Swami V, Jones J, Einon D, Furnham A.
Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK.

Abstract

One particular aspect of the literature on preferences for female body shapes has focused on the purported universality of preferences for a low waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), despite substantial evidence of cross-cultural variability in such preferences. In the present study, we examined the effects of manipulating women’s profile WHR, breast size, and ethnicity on men’s ratings of physical attractiveness and health. A total of 51 African men in South Africa, 56 British Africans, and 114 British Caucasians rated 12 line drawings that varied in two levels of ethnicity, three levels of WHR, and two levels of breast size. Overall, the results suggested that there were cross-cultural differences in preferred body shape, with the preferred body configuration varying as a function of the ethnicity of the figure being rated. In addition, there was a strong positive correlation between ratings of attractiveness and health. These findings are discussed in relation to the interplay between culture and evolution in determining ideals of attractiveness.

 

Scand J Psychol. 2007 Feb;48(1):43-50.

Perceptions of female body weight and shape among indigenous and urban Europeans.

Swami V, Tovée MJ.
Division of Public Health, University of Liverpool, UK.

Abstract

Two important cues to female physical attractiveness are body mass index (BMI) and body shape as measured by the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). This study examined the relative contribution of both cues in three culturally distinct populations. A total of 119 Finnish, Sámi and British male observers rated a set of un-edited photographs of women with known BMI and WHR. The results showed that there were significant differences in preferences for physical attractiveness, with the indigenous Sámi preferring figures with larger BMIs and more tolerant of heavyweight figures than either Finnish participants in Helsinki or Britons in London, who were indistinguishable in their preferences for slim figures. The findings are discussed in terms of evolutionary psychological explanations of mate selection, and sociocultural theories which emphasizes the learning of preferences for body sizes in social and cultural contexts.

 

Body Image. 2005 Jun;2(2):115-28. Epub 2005 May 31.

Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia: a cross-cultural study. (pdf)

Swami V, Tovée MJ.
Department of Psychology, University College of London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1E 6BT, UK.

Abstract

Two purported cues to perceived female physical attractiveness are body mass index (BMI) and body shape as measured by the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). This study examined the relative contribution of both cues in several culturally socio-economically distinct populations. Six hundred and eighty-two participants from Britain and Malaysia were asked to rate a set of images of real women with known BMI and WHR. The results showed that BMI is the primary determinant of female physical attractiveness, whereas WHR failed to emerge as a significant predictor. The results also showed that there were significant differences in preferences for physical attractiveness along a gradient of socio-economic development, with urban participants preferring images of women with significantly lower BMIs than their rural counterparts. The findings are discussed in terms of evolutionary psychological explanations of mate selection, and sociocultural theory, which emphasises the learning of preferences for body sizes in social and cultural contexts.

 

Arch Sex Behav. 2007 Jun;36(3):369-75. Epub 2006 Nov 30.

Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon.

Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Morgan B, Anderson MJ.
Department of Conservation and Research for Endangered Species, Zoological Society of San Diego, San Diego, California, USA.

Abstract

Men and women living in a rural community in Bakossiland, Cameroon were asked to rate the attractiveness of images of male or female figures manipulated to vary in somatotype, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), secondary sexual traits, and other features. In Study 1, women rated mesomorphic (muscular) and average male somatotypes as most attractive, followed by ectomorphic (slim) and endomorphic (heavily built) figures. In Study 2, amount and distribution of masculine trunk (chest and abdominal) hair was altered progressively in a series of front-posed male figures. A significant preference for one of these images was found, but the most hirsute figure was not judged as most attractive. Study 3 assessed attractiveness of front-posed male figures which varied only in length of the non-erect penis. Extremes of penile size (smallest and largest of five images) were rated as significantly less attractive than three intermediate sizes. In Study 4, Bakossi men rated the attractiveness of back-posed female images varying in WHR (from 0.5-1.0). The 0.8 WHR figure was rated markedly more attractive than others. Study 5 rated the attractiveness of female skin color. Men expressed no consistent preference for either lighter or darker female figures. These results are the first of their kind reported for a Central African community and provide a useful cross-cultural perspective to published accounts on sexual selection, human morphology and attractiveness in the U.S., Europe, and elsewhere.

 

Body Image. 2007 Jun;4(2):219-23. Epub 2007 Mar 1.

Preferences for female body size in Britain and the South Pacific. (pdf)

Swami V, Knight D, Tovée MJ, Davies P, Furnham A.
Division of Public Health, University of Liverpool, Whelan Building, Quadrangle, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L69 3GB, United Kingdom.

Abstract

To assess current attitudes to body weight and shape in the South Pacific, a region characterised by relatively high levels of obesity and traditionally positive views of large bodies, 38 high socio-economic status (SES) adolescent males and 38 low SES adolescent males in Independent Samoa were asked to rate a set of images of real women for physical attractiveness. Participants in both SES settings preferred women with a slender figure, as did a comparison group in Britain, suggesting that the traditional veneration of large bodies is no longer apparent in Samoa. However, the results also showed that low SES adolescents were more likely to view overweight figures as attractive, which suggests that the veneration of slim figures may be associated with increasing SES. Implications of this finding are discussed in conclusion.

 

Biol Lett. 2007 Dec 22;3(6):682-4.

Voice pitch predicts reproductive success in male hunter-gatherers. (pdf)

Apicella CL, Feinberg DR, Marlowe FW.
Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Peabody Museum, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.

Abstract

The validity of evolutionary explanations of vocal sexual dimorphism hinges upon whether or not individuals with more sexually dimorphic voices have higher reproductive success than individuals with less dimorphic voices. However, due to modern birth control methods, these data are rarely described, and mating success is often used as a second-rate proxy. Here, we test whether voice pitch predicts reproductive success, number of children born and child mortality in an evolutionarily relevant population of hunter-gatherers. While we find that voice pitch is not related to reproductive outcomes in women, we find that men with low voice pitch have higher reproductive success and more children born to them. However, voice pitch in men does not predict child mortality. These findings suggest that the association between voice pitch and reproductive success in men is mediated by differential access to fecund women. Furthermore, they show that there is currently selection pressure for low-pitch voices in men.

 

Geher, G; Miller. G. (2008) Mating Intelligence Sex, Relationships, and the Mind’s Reproductive System

 

 

Roney, J. The role of sex hormones in the initiation of human mating relatyionships

 

Dixson, B. (Thesis) Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Human Physique

 

Cashdan, E. (2008) Waist-to-hip ratio across cultures: trade-offs between androgen- and estrogen-dependent traits.
Current Anthropology 49:1099-1107.

Cashdan, E. (1996). Women’s matting strategies
Evolutionary Anthropology 5:134-143, 1996. Dept. of Anthropology, Univ. of Utah

 

Frost, P. (2008). Sexual selection and human geographic variation
Special Issue: Proceedings of the 2^nd Annual Meeting of the NorthEastern Evolutionary Psychology Society. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2(4), pp. 169-191.

 

Thornhilla, R. (1999) The Body and Face of Woman: One Ornament that Signals Quality?

Randy Thornhilla, Karl Grammerb. Evolution and Human Behaviour. Volume 20, Issue 2, Pages 105-120 (March 1999).
 

 

Artigos do Dr. Martin Tovée

Swami V, Henderson G, Custance D, Tovee MJ. A cross-cultural investigation of men’s judgements of female body weight in Britain and Indonesia. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 2010.

Swami V, Furnham A, Chamorro-Premuzic T, Akbar K, Gordon N, Harris T, Finch J, Tovee MJ. More than skin deep? Personality information influences men’s ratings of the attractiveness of women’s body sizes. Journal of Social Psychology 2010.

Swami V, Pietschnig J, Stieger S, Tovee MJ, Voracek M. An investigation of weight bias against women and its association with individual difference factors. Body Image 2010, 7, 194-199.

Cornelissen PL; Hancock PJB; Kiviniemi V; George HR; Tovée MJ. Patterns of eye movements when male and female observers judge female attractiveness, body fat and waist-to-hip ratio. Evolution and Human Behavior 2009, 30(6), 417-428.

Cornelissen PL; Tovee MJ; Bateson M. Patterns of subcutaneous fat deposition and the relationship between body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio: Implications for models of physical attractiveness. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2009, 256(3), 343-350.

Swami V; Steadman L; Tovee MJ. A comparison of body size ideals, body dissatisfaction, and media influence between female track athletes, martial artists, and non-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 2009, 10(6), 609-614.

Swami V; Miller R; Furnham A; Penke L; Tovée MJ. The influence of men’s sexual strategies on perceptions of women’s bodily attractiveness, health and fertility. Personality and Individual Differences 2008, 44(1), 98-107.

Swami V; Furnham A; Amin R; Chaudri J; Joshi K; Jundi S; Miller R; Mirza-Begum J; Begum FN; Sheth P; Tovée MJ. Lonelier, Lazier, and Teased: The Stigmatizing Effect of Body Size. Journal of Social Psychology 2008, 148(5), 577-595.

George HR; Swami V; Cornelissen PL; Tovee MJ. Preferences for body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio do not vary with observer age. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology 2008, 6(3), 207-218.

Swami V; Salem N; Furnham A; Tovée MJ. Initial examination of the validity and reliability of the female photographic figure rating scale for body image assessment. Personality and Individual Differences 2008, 44(8), 1752-1761.

Swami V; Salem N; Furnham A; Tovée MJ. The influence of feminist ascription on judgements of women’s physical attractiveness. Body Image 2008, 5(2), 224-229.

Swami V; Tovée MJ; Furnham A. Does financial security influence judgements of female physical attractiveness?. Journal of Socio-Economics 2008, 37(4), 1363-1370.

Smith KL; Tovee MJ; Hancock PJB; Bateson M; Cox MAA; Cornelissen PL. An analysis of body shape attractiveness based on image statistics: Evidence for a dissociation between expressions of preference and shape discrimination. Visual Cognition 2007, 15(8), 927-953.

Swami V; Tovee MJ. The relative contribution of profile body shape and weight to judgements of women’s physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia. Body Image 2007, 4(4), 391-396.

Tovée MJ; Furnham A; Swami V. Healthy body equals beautiful body? Changing perceptions of health and attractiveness with shifting socioeconomic status. In: Furnham, A; Swami, V, ed. The Body Beautiful: Evolutionary and Socio-cultural Perspectives. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 108-128.

Smith KL; Cornelissen PL; Tovee MJ. Color 3D bodies and judgements of human female attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior 2007, 28(1), 48-54.

Swami V; Neto F; Tovee MJ; Furnham A. Preferences for female body weight and shape in three European countries. European Psychologist 2007, 12(3), 220-228.

Swami V; Knight D; Tovee MJ; Davies P; Furnham A. Preferences for female body size in Britain and the South Pacific. Body Image 2007, 4(2), 219-223.

Swami V; Tovee MJ. Perceptions of female body weight and shape among indigenous and urban Europeans. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 2007, 48(1), 43-50.

Scott I; Bentley GR; Tovée MJ; Uddin Ahamed F; Magid K; Sharmeen T. An evolutionary perspective on male preferences for female body shape. In: Furnham, A; Swami, V, ed. The Body Beautiful: Evolutionary and Socio-cultural Perspectives. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 65-87.

Tovée MJ, Swami V, Furnham A, Mangalparsad R. Changing perceptions of attractiveness as observers are exposed to a different culture. Evolution and Human Behavior 2006, 27(6), 443-456.

Swami V, Tovée MJ. Does hunger influence judgments of female physical attractiveness?. British Journal of Psychology 2006, 97(3), 353-363.

Swami V, Antonakopoulos N, Tovée MJ, Furnham A. A critical test of the waist-to-hip ratio hypothesis of women’s physical attractiveness in Britain and Greece. Sex Roles 2006, 54(3-4), 201-211.

Swami V, Caprario C, Tovée MJ, Furnham A. Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Japan: A cross-cultural study. European Journal of Personality 2006, 20(1), 69-81.

Swami V; Tovee MJ. Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia: A cross-cultural study. Body Image 2005, 2(2), 115-128.F. Cormack, D. Aarsland, C. Ballard & M. J. Tovee.

M. J. Tovee;P. J. B. Hancock;S. Mahmoodi;B. R. R. Singleton;P. L. Cornelissen. Human female attractiveness: waveform analysis of body shape. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 2002, 269(1506), 2205-2213.S. Panzeri;H. D. R. Golledge;F. Zheng;G. Pola;T. J. Blanche;M. J. Tovee;M. P. Young.

M. J. Tovee;P. L. Cornelissen. Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front-view and profile. British Journal of Psychology 2001, 92, 391-402.

M. J. Tovee;K. Tasker;P. J. Benson. Is symmetry a visual cue to attractiveness in the human female body?. Evolution and Human Behavior 2000, 21(3), 191-200.

M. J. Tovee;J. L. Emery;E. M. Cohen-Tovee. The estimation of body mass index and physical attractiveness is dependent on the observer’s own body mass index. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 2000, 267(1456), 1987-1997.

D. S. Maisey;E. L. E. Vale;P. L. Cornelissen;M. J. Tovee. Characteristics of male attractiveness for women. Lancet 1999, 353(9163), 1500-1500.B. G. Charlton;M. J. Tovee.

M. J. Tovee;P. L. Cornelissen. The mystery of female beauty. Nature 1999, 399(6733), 215-216.

M. J. Tovee;D. S. Maisey;J. L. Emery;P. L. Cornelissen. Visual cues to female physical attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 1999, 266(1415), 211-218.

M. J. Tovee. More than just a pretty face?. Journal of Biological Education 1998, 32(1), 60-66.

M. J. Tovee;S. Reinhardt;J. L. Emery;P. L. Cornelissen. Optimum body-mass index and maximum sexual attractiveness. Lancet 1998, 352(9127), 548-548.

 

Artigos do Prof. Frank Marlowe

Marlowe, F.W., Apicella, C.L. and Reed, D. 2005. Men’s Preferences for Women’s Profile: Waist-Hip-Ratio in Two Societies. Evolution and Human Behavior 26:458-468.

Marlowe, F.W. 2005. Mate preferences among Hadza hunter-gatherers. Human Nature 15:364-375

Marlowe, F.W. 2003. The Mating System of Foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Cross-Cultural Research 37:282-306.

Marlowe, F.W. 2003. A critical period for provisioning by Hadza men: Implications for pair bonding. Evolution and Human Behavior 24(3):217-229.

Marlowe, F. and Wetsman, A. 2001. Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology. Personality and Individual Differences 30(3):481-489.

Marlowe, F. 2001. Male contribution to diet and female reproductive success among foragers. Current Anthropology 42:755-760 .

Marlowe, F. 2000. Paternal investment and the human mating system. Behavioural Processes 51:45-61 .

Marlowe, F. 1998. The nubility hypothesis: The human breast as an honest signal of residual reproductive value. Human Nature 9 (3):263-271.

 

Veja também

Physical attractiveness (Wikipedia)

Feminine beauty : The type of beauty that befits a woman